Free Essays on Heat of Darkness

In the novel Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad one of the major themes is the perversity of the Congo. What is good and evil in the European world becomes distorted and hazy in the heart of Africa. To the outside world white is good and black is evil; it is as simple as that. This philosophy is embodied in Marlow’s aunt, who believes that his job is to bring light into the land of darkness and to enlighten the savages. This idea, however, becomes corrupted when white objects symbolize suffering and greed instead of good, and light images hide the presence of darkness. Symbols such as, a white rag, white imperialists and ivory, no longer represent the good will of the imperialists, on the other hand they represent the exploitation and chaos that the Europeans have brought to the Congo. The main character Marlow is faced with this confusion as he voyages through the jungle, and he must reevaluate his former opinions, which no longer hold true. The European philosophy is shown t hrough the conversation that Marlow has with his aunt before commencing his adventure. According to her, his job seems clear: to bring civilization and light to the â€Å"heart of darkness.† Instead of focusing on the horrors of imperialism she is disillusioned to believe that it is all for the better. The Europeans, especially the British have no respect for other cultures or other ways of life, and they truly believe that they are helping the Africans. Not by choice but because of the â€Å"white man’s burden† they feel the need to â€Å"[wean] those ignorant millions from their horrid ways†(28). To the outside this seems like an earnest motive; however, once inside Marlow begins to see new forms of corruption. Are the imperialists their to help, or are they there to make money to fulfill their greed? He begins to realize that it is not the black savages who represent evil, but rather the selfish whites. This corruption is further shown through the nove l with sy... Free Essays on Heat of Darkness Free Essays on Heat of Darkness In the novel Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad one of the major themes is the perversity of the Congo. What is good and evil in the European world becomes distorted and hazy in the heart of Africa. To the outside world white is good and black is evil; it is as simple as that. This philosophy is embodied in Marlow’s aunt, who believes that his job is to bring light into the land of darkness and to enlighten the savages. This idea, however, becomes corrupted when white objects symbolize suffering and greed instead of good, and light images hide the presence of darkness. Symbols such as, a white rag, white imperialists and ivory, no longer represent the good will of the imperialists, on the other hand they represent the exploitation and chaos that the Europeans have brought to the Congo. The main character Marlow is faced with this confusion as he voyages through the jungle, and he must reevaluate his former opinions, which no longer hold true. The European philosophy is shown t hrough the conversation that Marlow has with his aunt before commencing his adventure. According to her, his job seems clear: to bring civilization and light to the â€Å"heart of darkness.† Instead of focusing on the horrors of imperialism she is disillusioned to believe that it is all for the better. The Europeans, especially the British have no respect for other cultures or other ways of life, and they truly believe that they are helping the Africans. Not by choice but because of the â€Å"white man’s burden† they feel the need to â€Å"[wean] those ignorant millions from their horrid ways†(28). To the outside this seems like an earnest motive; however, once inside Marlow begins to see new forms of corruption. Are the imperialists their to help, or are they there to make money to fulfill their greed? He begins to realize that it is not the black savages who represent evil, but rather the selfish whites. This corruption is further shown through the nove l with sy...

Timeline of US-North Korean Relations

Timeline of US-North Korean Relations Take a look at the US-North Korean relationship from 1950 to the present. 1950-1953 WarThe Korean War was fought on the Korean Peninsula between the Chinese supported forces in the north and the American supported, United Nations forces in the south. 1953 CeasefireOpen warfare stops with a ceasefire agreement on July 27. The peninsula is divided by a demilitarized zone (DMZ) along the 38th parallel. The north is the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea (DPRK) and the south becomes the Republic of Korea (ROK). A formal peace agreement ending the Korean War has not yet been signed. 1968 USS PuebloThe DPRK captures the USS Pueblo, an American intelligence gathering ship. Although the crew is later released, the North Koreans still hold the USS Pueblo. 1969 Shot DownAn American reconnaissance plane is shot down by North Korea. Thirty-one Americans are killed. 1994 New LeaderKim Il Sung, known as the Great Leader of the DPRK since 1948 dies. His son, Kim Jong Il, assumes power and is known as the Dear Leader. 1995 Nuclear CooperationAgreement reached with the United States to build nuclear reactors in DPRK. 1998 Missile Test?In what appears to be a test flight, the DPRK sends a missile flying over Japan. 2002 Axis of EvilIn his 2002 State of the Union Address, President George W. Bush labeled North Korea as part an Axis of Evil along with Iran and Iraq. 2002 ClashUnited States stops oil shipments to DPRK in a dispute over the countrys secretive nuclear weapons program. DPRK removes international nuclear inspectors. 2003 Diplomatic MovesDPRK withdraws from the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty. So-called Six Party talks open between the United States, China, Russia, Japan, South Korea, and North Korea. 2005 Outpost of TyrannyIn her Senate confirmation testimony to become Secretary of State, Condoleezza Rice listed North Korea as one of several Outposts of Tyranny in the world. 2006 More MissilesDPRK test fires a number of missiles and later conducts a test explosion of a nuclear device. 2007 Agreement?Six Party talks early in the year lead to a plan for North Korea to shut down its nuclear enrichment program and allow for international inspections. But the agreement has still not been implemented. 2007 BreakthroughIn September, U.S. State Department announces North Korea will catalog and dismantle its entire nuclear program by the end of the year. Speculation follows that North Korea will be removed from the U.S. list of state sponsors of terrorism. More diplomatic breakthroughs, including discussion of ending the Korean War, follow in October. 2007 Mr. PostmanIn December, President Bush sends a handwritten letter to North Korean leader Kim Jong Il. 2008 More Progress?Speculation runs high in June that President Bush will ask that North Korea be removed from the U.S. terror watch list in acknowledgment of progress in the six-party talks. Removed From ListIn October, President Bush formally removed North Korea from the U.S. terror watch list.

Stereotypes and fantasies about the US South have been a major theme Essay

Stereotypes and fantasies about the US South have been a major theme in the development of US popular music - Essay Example The following analysis will seek to discuss and analyze the manner by which this particular song helps the listener to come to an appreciation and understanding of what the desire of the working-class black woman would be, a promotion and understanding of the idea that a greater self-determination was possible and therefore sees, an understanding and appreciation for a renewed emphasis upon feminism and a focus upon how the freedom and equality movement had grown from merely something that sought parity with whites to something that sought parity between the sexes. As such it is the hope of this author that this particular analysis can not only help to confirm some of statements with regards to the blues of the 1920s but also offer an alternative level of understanding with respect to the way in which this music was represented and presented within the particular time in question. The ultimate meaning and understanding that the song implies is with regards to a deadbeat husband who h as run off on his wife and lives a life on his own for over a year’s time. In returning, the woman of the house, exercising a degree of power and self determinism, recalled the way in which she answers the door and ultimately tells him to leave and not bother her anymore as she has started her own life. This is of course evident of a great degree of freedom, self empowerment, and self-determination that might not likely have been evidenced within another era. The songwriter recounts the way in which even though he asks for permission to come in and start a life together again, the woman refuses and states that she does not need his laundry, his rent, or his ones and twos (likely referring to any further children from this individual). In an era gone by, it would have been the requirement of the woman to wait for her husband, regardless of his indiscretions, and necessarily forgive these at such a time that he gained to reappear in her life. However, as was represented in this blues music of the 1920s, this working-class black woman was not willing to accept this as an alternative to the freedom and self-determination that she had already been experiencing within the past months. In addition to Hazel Carby’s understanding of the way in which the concerns and cares of the black working-class woman were represented within the blues of the 1920s, a very clear level of feminism and an understanding of greater freedom and equality was represented within songs such as â€Å"Sam Jones Blues†, the songwriter ultimately less the listener be aware of the fact that Mrs. Wilson not only refuses Sam Jones entry into her house, she has also learned how to leverage the legal system , filed and received proper divorce papers, and has her own employment; thereby making the existence of a man in her life ultimately superfluous (James 173). From the information that is thus far been provided, the reader can come to a clear understanding of the fact that the b lues of this particular era, as understood through the lens of â€Å"Sam Jones Blues† not only represented a shift away from the musical integration and utilization that had been leveraged in previous eras, it also dealt with a unique subject matter that was not formally discussed within songs prior to this era. Although infidelity and issues of adultery have long been topics of the human condition, and analysis of these from an empowered black woman’s perspective and the means through which she has the ability, will, money, and self

Rooms Division Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Rooms Division - Assignment Example This research focuses on room division operations with reference to Nadler Soho, which is a strategically located hotel off Oxford Street. The Tottenham Court Tube Station is situated 400 meters from the hotel while the British Museum is less than 1 kilometre away. In the neighbourhood are several bars and restaurants. The Nadler Soho offers state of the art accommodation facilities comprising well-designed rooms installed with Wi-Fi for guests, global digital newspapers and an LED television set. The rooms comprise modern shower rooms and a hair drier to ensure maximal convenience. Guests are also provided with a small food cupboard and a laptop computer safe. There are a set of legislation in the UK that directly influence the room operations for hotels in the UK. The law of civil rights requires that disabled people be treated equally as other guests. Access to rooms must be provided equally and ramps must be built for use by people with disabilities. Toilets should also be disability friendly among other aspects of the room division. The equality act is against discrimination of any kind including disability, gender, marital status, race, religion and sexual orientation among other social aspects that are predisposed to discrimination (Clark & Chen, 2007). The fire safety regulations of 1988 require room division to guarantee safety for guests and employees. Fire exits must be clearly marked and adequate information provided to the guest in case of a fire outbreak. All such exists are required to open outwards to maximize efficiency of exit in case of fire. Fire fighting equipment need to be installed and marked clearly. Fire retardant furniture and fittings are a statutory requirement. Fire drills are required regularly to assess the effectiveness of response to fire accidents. Guests should not be exposed to health hazards such as electrocution, falling debris and falls among other health hazards. Gas Safety

Plagiarism research Essay Example for Free

Plagiarism research Essay Introduction: The irresponsible illustration of others’ thoughts, words or point of views without the acknowledgment of the person from whose ideas it has been taken is called Plagiarism. Thus it is also using of others’ ideas and pretending to be the writers’ own. For understanding the meaning of plagiarism, it is helpful for understanding the creating and sharing of thoughts and views in an institution. The knowledge which we acquire is related and built from the knowledge gained previously. The knowledge which is gained is from others’ ideas and from that we create our own ides. While writing to the instructor about it, it is necessary to differentiate the new and your own ideas and the ideas of the people which are the building block. This distinction is made by giving credit by citing the source from which it has been taken. While citing a source, we are actually giving the reader the proof of the expert’s ideas. Wherever others ideas are used without the appropriate citation of source, plagiarism occurs. Plagiarism checker is applied to any of the work performed formally in any academic or scholarly medium or discipline. (Alex P, 2002) So for avoiding the involuntary plagiarism, we are supposed to develop the practice of giving acknowledging and saying gratitude to the original source Plagiarism can be avoided by only using others ideas and theories and expressing them as your own, quoting directly the exact wordings of the original source and paraphrasing all the ideas, point of views, theories, which are expressed in words either written or oral. It can also be avoided by citing sources while writing a report or completing the final project or using of the figures, facts and other statistical data by citing the actual source. Since the word plagiarism is come from the Latin word means kidnapping, thus plagiarism is stealing or kidnapping others thoughts and ideas. So others’ thoughts and words should not be taken for granted since they are their personal property and if used, then should be acknowledged. Stealing others ideas and replicating those ideas and then presenting those ideas as our own without giving any credit to the person whose ideas are taken is dishonesty and unethical, since we are using it for our own means. Thus any form of plagiarism is termed as cheating and it is strongly condemned and is not accepted anywhere. If someone steals others ideas as your own then it means that he is not capable of expressing his ideas and he has no thoughts of his own, or his ideas are not as worthy as others ideas. Thus stealing involves not only stealing others but also ourselves. (Ann, 2005). By this, plagiarist shows that he is unable to express his own ideas thus by plagiarism one is depending himself or herself with the ideas of others. In any organization the plagiarist is exposed to costly lawsuits to his employer. By this, plagiarist shows that he is unable to express his own ideas thus by plagiarism one is depending himself or herself with the ideas of others. In any organization the plagiarist is exposed to costly lawsuits to his employer. As a consequence plagiarism is a kind of fraud and thus no employee will be hired by an employer if his honesty is being doubted. Thus one gives self harm and also harms others and gives disrespect to others. If one understands plagiarism and still commits it the he is violating the integrity of others as well as of himself. References Kellogg, Alex P. (2002). Students plagiarize online less than many think, a new study finds. Chronicle of Higher Education, V. 48 Issue 23, p. A44 Lathrop, Ann, and Kathleen Foss. (2005). Guiding Students from Cheating and Plagiarism to Honesty and Integrity: Strategies for Change. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.

Health Care Industry Essay -- Business, Employee Satisfaction

Health care industry is healing from the recent shortage in qualified professionals. The retention of professionals and overall employee satisfaction has been affected by the recent economical changes. Need for change has been pressured amongst health care managers for almost a decade now. The federal government has predicted, by 2020, retirement will contribute to a shortage of approximately 24,000 doctors and nearly one million nurses. The organizational environment appears to be the focus of the human resource consultants that are providing input in the change. The most challenging aspect of management today in the health care industry is employee satisfaction because retaining qualified professionals has decreased. To survive and be successful in this industry will require flexibility and adaptability. The author intends to help explain how changes in the health care environment necessitate changes in how health care managers actively manage. A move from traditional health care w orkforce model to the future will likely be positively viewed by staff and the organization, once thoroughly reviewed. It is more frequently being suggested that health care managers are so focused on increased size that they are no longer appropriately serving the employees concerns. Ensuring employees are motivated in these uncertain times are daily challenge for managers. Factors that will help to improve employee satisfaction are acknowledging the possibility of work-family conflict, and improving the work environment. Health care professionals have power to dictate the terms of their employment, and employers are finding that flexibility is central to attracting and retaining quality professionals. The author’s findings are based on experience in ... ...etention, and offer a more realistic job preview. Research indicates a few ways to successful strategies leading to improving work environment by utilizing employee satisfaction on the job. They are: linking employee satisfaction with patient satisfaction, using fun to increase employee satisfaction and ling employee satisfaction with employee retention. Health care human resource managers will continue to monitor the levels of employee satisfaction within the industry, reduce turnover, through a well planned strategy. Future research should attempt to determine if there is a gender bias in employee satisfaction in the industry. More emphasizes on procedural justice affects on the work environment along with gender specific views. New hires would be attracted to an organization in the industry with a reputation for fairness in work schedules and work life balance.

Pop Culture Essay Essay

There are many movie genres out today than there were before in earlier years. Movie genres are basically different types of movies, such as: horror, suspense, mystery, drama ,romance, etc. Today it seems that most peoples favorite movie genre is horrow or action. Action movies have a lot of different stuff in them that is pleasing to the eye. Action movies are typically loud and have a lot of fighting, racing, and adventurous things in the film. Horror movies on the other hand have a lot of scary things in the movies. Their big thing is that the more blood they have the better it is to the audience watching. Even though horror and action may be the top picks of the rest of the country, I have my own genre of movies that I particularly like the best. My favorite genre of movies is romance. In a romance based movie, it is filled with love and a lot of laughter throughout the whole movie. While most romance movies start off bad and end up with a happy ending, some start out good and end good as well. Most romance movies today start out being bad and then it ends up in the happy ending that you suspect from the title of the movie. Romance movies go through every movie genre there is. There is suspense and sometimes a little horror as well. Sometimes, and most of the time, they contain a lot of drama. The best romance movies are the ones full of drama that is fun to watch. Every woman around the world enjoys a good romance movie. Many women around the world love romance movies, including myself. Simply because they meet the cravings that every woman has sometime throughout their lives. Each and every romance movie touches a woman in some way or another. Every girl dreams of having that guy from a love story. They want them to be loving and caring and when we watch these movies we imagine ourselves being the girl in the movie. Some movies, even make a girl feel better after a breakup. However, some of the real love stories can make it worse than ever before. Also, romance movies will make you cry if it is one of those that are filled with sad moments throughout the whole movie. As a girl, sometimes we feel the need to cry, whether it is stress or PMS. The  romance movies are a good way to bring out the inner emotions and in the end, make you feel a whole lot better. Drama is another movie genre that gets included into romance movies. Drama can be funny and it can also bring out deeper thoughts and emotions. Everyone and especially women, have a fair share of their love for drama. Women like to gossip and chick flick, love stories are filled with it. Gossiping is a way to let things out and to give out information that can be bad or good. It just depends on who is saying it or what is said. The good thing is, the drama in the romance stories are usually not true. Even though we all get a good laugh at the stupid ones in the movie. In conclusion, romance genre movies are a favorite. They can make you happy or sad or bring out different emotions. Romance movies are twisted with drama along with romance to bring out laughter or anger in the audience. Everyone will have their own personal reaction to every single romance movie that comes out. Therefore, in my opinion, romance genre movies are the best because they contain many qualities that other genres do. Meaning that they satisfy almost every â€Å"craving† that a person has for a good movie.

Green Iguana Ethogram

Animal Behavior Lab An Ethogram on the Green Iguana Lecturer: Dr. P. Deluca Due Date: 2. 10. 12 Classification Kingdom | Animlia | Phylum | Chordata | Subphylum | Vertebrata | Class | Reptilia | Order | Squamata | Suborder | Sauria | Family | Iguanidae | Subfamily | Iguania | Genus | Iguana | Species | iguana | Introduction: The Green Iguana (Iguana iguana) was studied at Ardastra Gardens and Zoo in Nassau, Bahamas for approximately two hours on September 25th 2012.The Green Iguana is a large, arboreal herbivorous species of lizard of the genus Iguana native to Central, South America, and the Caribbean (Meshaka et al. , 2007). They are active during the day, feeding on leaves, flowers, and fruit. They generally live near water and are excellent swimmers. If threatened, they will leap from a branch, often from great heights, and escape with a splash to the water below (Meshaka et al. , 2007). Furthermore, they possess a row of spines along their backs and along their tails which helps to protect them from predators (Meshaka et al. 2007). Their whip-like tails can be used to deliver painful strikes and like many other lizards, when grabbed by the tail, the iguana can allow it to break, so it can escape and eventually regenerate a new one (Meshaka et al. , 2007). In addition, iguanas have well developed dewlaps which help regulate their body temperature. This dewlap is used in courtships and territorial displays (Meshaka et al. , 2007). The habitat of these iguanas was tropical warm and wet. The weather on that day ranged from 93Â °F to 95Â °F. Methods: The green iguanas were studied using Focal sampling.With this method, the green iguana was located and its behavior was observed for a standard time. During this focal study, the following data was recorded as they occur: * the context (date, time, location, weather, habitat, social context) * the sequence of behaviors * the duration of behaviors (using a stopwatch) Name of behavior: Head-Bobbing During this obse rvation, the green iguana (Iguana iguana) began this behavior by raising its body up and moving its head up and down. The time or duration of this behavior was between 12:18 pm- 1:39 pm.There were different modes of this behavior that was interpreted and could have been an indication of threat, a harmless greeting or protection of territory. The bobbing of the green iguana may also probably be done in a variety of situations and signaling of different things. The most notable description of this bobbing is the usual straight up and down with a minor side-to-side movement, which is vibrated quickly in the up-down-sideways mode. When bobbing is completed, the head is kept raised upwards after the last movement. This is held for a moment or two, followed by an up-and-down bob again.This process occurs when the iguana sees another one of its kind (neighbor), other lizards such as the brown anole and curly tail lizard and people visiting the zoo. When an individual would stay more than 1 0- 15 minutes the green iguana body will settle down into a relaxed, laying down position rather than the raised and laterally compressed body position that typically accompanies the aggressive bobs. This behavior occurred in three different sessions and they lasted on an average of thirteen (13) minutes and giving a total of thirty nine (39) minutes.The first observation of the green iguana was one of the slowest movements of its head when approached by a nearby lizard of a different species such as the brown anole that was passing by within the territory of the green iguana. This slow head bobbing appeared to be in a form of a greeting to the brown anole. At first however, the green anole was lying flat on its stomach not doing much and when the brown anole came pass, the green iguana changed its body posture by raising the body and flaring its dewlap (small pulsation of dewlap).However, the slight bobbing became more of an advertisement that the iguana was concerned about its ter ritorial rights. During the second observation, another green iguana that was sharing the same territory with the previous green iguana being studied appeared in the nearby area. When this happened, the green iguana (studied individual) bobbing changes its frequency or rate and became more rapid. This was probably an attempt to indicate that it was becoming more annoyed and offended by the trespassing of the other green iguana.It also had appeared to be warning the other iguana away from its basking area. During this behavior, the head is vibrated quickly in the up-down-sideways mode, and its head was kept raised upwards after the last movement. This was held momentarily followed by an up-and-down bob, as stated previously. However during the final bobbing observation, the green iguana head was moving in a slow jerking motion that was accompanied with little sneezing. This occurred approximately 1:22pm. During this observation, there were no visible stressors in its environment.It w as also moving along a piece of log and extending its dewlap. The dewlap is the fan like structure that hangs beneath the chin of the green iguana. The extension of the dewlap only lasted momentarily and it began to fold and tuck up under its chin, as if it was a sign of submission. This behavior lasted for approximately 8 minutes. Reference: Meshaka, E. W. , Smith, T. H. , Golden, E. , et al. (2007). Green Iguanas (Iguana iguana): The Unintended Consequence of Sound Wildlife Management Practices. Herpetological Conservation and Biology. 2(2):149-156.

Lysistrata Essays - Lysistrata, Women In War, Aristophanes, Peace

Lysistrata Essays - Lysistrata, Women In War, Aristophanes, Peace Lysistrata Lysistrata is a play written in 411 BC by Aristophanes. At that time in Greek history, the city-states were constantly warring with one another. Consequently, the women were left at home. One woman, Lysistrata, was so fed up with the fighting that she called all of the women of Greece to a meeting. When they finally showed up, Lysistrata presented her plan for peace: no sex until the wars ceased. She eventually convinced all of the other women that this was the only way to bring peace to the land. The men were miserable and ultimately they negotiated a treaty to stop the hostilities. This play has its merits and its downfalls. As a whole, however, it is well written, humorous, and most importantly, it has a purpose. On first glance, the play seems to be no more than a simple, comical story. Aristophanes wrote the play not only to entertain, but also to make a stand against warfare. He believed that war was an abnormal state of affairs. At the opening of the play, Lysistrata has calle d a meeting of all the women and is impatiently waiting for them. She says that she has spent long, sleepless nights agonizing over the solution to the wars. She tells Kalonike, Only we women can save Greece! As the rest of the women arrive, she informs them of her plan. The women are resistant to the idea of no sex at first. They then realize that what Lysistrata says is true. The women take an oath and swear to one another that they will have nothing to do with their husbands until the wars cease. Aristophanes' use of women as the peacemakers shows the natural role of women as nurturers. He is displaying how life should be, without war. In times of peace, men are working at home alongside their wives. When war comes about, women are left to do all the work, domestic and otherwise. This upsets the balance of daily life. Aristophanes is urging his fellow Greeks to restore peace and therefore life as they once knew it. As the play progresses, the men are in extreme pain and agony fro m the withholding of sexual activities. They come to the conclusion, grudgingly, that the women are indeed correct. To renew Greece, the fighting must end. And they are the ones with whom it has to begin. The men arrange a treaty and then celebrate with the others, Athenian and Spartan alike. But, as I can imagine, all, women and men, are anxious to get home. With this play, Aristophanes' goal was to tell an amusing story and also to spur his countrymen to resolve their differences for the sake of Greece and Greek life. We now know that they did not heed Aristophanes warnings. The Golden Age of Greece did come to an end, mostly because of the extreme pride and arrogance of the individual city-states. Aristophanes did his best to convince them, but such is the sage advice: it often goes unheeded, much to the dismay of all concerned.

Aztec Sacrifice - The Meaning of Ritual Human Killings

Aztec Sacrifice - The Meaning of Ritual Human Killings Aztec sacrifices were famously a part of the Aztec culture, famous in part because of deliberate propaganda out of the Spanish conquistadors in Mexico, who at the time were involved in executing heretics and opponents in bloody ritual displays as part of the Spanish Inquisition. The over-emphasis on the role of human sacrifice has led to a distorted view of Aztec society: but it is also true that violence formed a regular and ritualized part of life in Tenochtitlan. Key Takeaways: Aztec Sacrifice Sacrifices were a regular and ritualized part of life in 15th- and 16th-century Aztec capital cities.  The numbers and extent of the practice were almost certainly inflated by Spanish conquistadors.  Reasonable estimates are between 1000 and 20,000 human sacrifices per year in Tenochitlan; the Spanish claimed much more.The main religious purpose was to renew and sustain life, and to communicate with the gods.  As a political tool, sacrifice was used terrorize Aztec subjects and legitimize the Aztec rulers and the state itself. How Common Was Human Sacrifice? As many Mesoamerican people did, the Aztec/Mexica believed that sacrifice to the gods was necessary to ensure the continuity of the world and the balance of the universe. They distinguished between two types of sacrifice: those involving humans and those involving animals or other offerings. Human sacrifices included both self-sacrifice, such as bloodletting, in which people would cut or perforate themselves; as well as the sacrifice of the lives of other human beings. Although both were quite frequent, the second one gained the Aztecs the fame of being a bloodthirsty and brutal people who worshiped cruel deities. Meaning of Aztec Sacrifices For the Aztecs, human sacrifice fulfilled multiple purposes, both at the religious and socio-political level. They considered themselves the â€Å"elected† people, the people of the Sun who had been chosen by the gods to feed them and by doing so were responsible for the continuity of the world. On the other hand, as the Mexica became the most powerful group in Mesoamerica, human sacrifice acquired the added value of political propaganda: requiring subject states to offer up human sacrifice was a way to maintain control over them. The rituals connected with the sacrifices included the so-called Flowery Wars intended not to kill the enemy but rather to obtain slaves and live war captives for sacrifices. This practice served to subjugate their neighbors and send a political message to both their own citizens as well as foreign leaders. A recent cross-cultural study by Watts et al. (2016) argued that human sacrifice also propped up and supported the elite class structure. But Pennock (2011) argues that to simply write off Aztecs as bloodthirsty and uncivilized mass murderers misses the central purpose of human sacrifice in Aztec society: as a deeply held belief system and part of the requirements for the renewal, sustaining and refreshing of life. Forms of Aztec Sacrifices Chac-Mool (divine messenger bearing offerings) in stone with traces of colour, Sanctuary of Tlaloc, Templo Mayor, Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), Mexico. Aztec civilization, ca 1390 CE. De Agostino / G. Dagli Orti / De Agostini Picture Library / Getty Images Plus Human sacrifice among the Aztec usually involved death by heart extraction. The victims were chosen carefully according to their physical characteristics and how they related to the gods to whom they would be sacrificed. Some gods were honored with brave war captives, other with slaves. Men, women, and children were sacrificed, according to the requirements. Children were specially chosen to be sacrificed to Tlaloc, the rain god. The Aztecs believed that the tears of newborn or very young children could ensure rain. The most important place where sacrifices took place was the Huey Teocalli at the Templo Mayor (Great Temple) of Tenochtitlan. Here a specialist priest removed the heart from the victim and threw the body down the steps of the pyramid; and the victims head was cut off and placed on the tzompantli, or skull rack. Mock Battles and Flowery Wars However, not all sacrifices took place on top of pyramids. In some cases, mock-battles were organized between the victim and a priest, in which the priest fought with real weapons and the victim, tied to a stone or a wooden frame, fought with wooden or feathered ones. Children sacrificed to Tlaloc were often carried to the god’s sanctuaries on top of the mountains that surround Tenochtitlan and the Basin of Mexico in order to be offered to the god. The chosen victim would be treated as a personification on earth of the god until the sacrifice took place. The preparation and purification rituals often lasted more than one year, and during this period the victim was taken care of, fed, and honored by servants. The Sun Stone of Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina (or Montezuma I, who ruled between 1440-1469) is an enormous carved monument discovered at the Templo Mayor in 1978. It features elaborate carvings of 11 enemy city-states and likely served as a gladiatorial stone, a dramatic platform for gladiatorial combat between Mexica warriors and captives. Most ritual killings were practiced by religious specialists, but Aztec rulers themselves often took part in the dramatic ritual sacrifices such as the dedication of Tenochtitlans Templo Mayor in 1487. Ritual human sacrifice also took place during elite feasting, as part of a display of power and material wealth. Categories of Human Sacrifice Mexican archaeologist Alfredo Là ³pez Austin (1988) described four types of Aztec sacrifice: images, beds, owners of skin, and payments. Images (or ixpitla) are sacrifices in which the victim was costumed as a particular god, becoming transformed into the deity at a magic ritual time. These sacrifices repeated the ancient mythical time when a god died so his force would be reborn, and the death of the human-god impersonators allowed the rebirth of the god. The second category was what Là ³pez Austin called the beds of the gods, referring to retainers, those victims killed in order to accompany an elite personage to the underworld. The owners of skins sacrifice is that associated with Xipe Totec, those victims whose skins were removed and worn as costumes in rituals. These rituals also provided body part war trophies, in which the warriors who captured the victim were awarded a femur to display at home. Human Remains as Evidence Apart from the Spanish and indigenous texts describing rituals involving human sacrifice, there is also ample archaeological evidence for the practice. Recent investigations at the Templo Mayor have identified the burials of high-ranking personages who were ritually buried following cremation. But the majority of human remains found in Tenochtitlan excavations were sacrificed individuals, some beheaded and some with their throats cut. One offering at the Templo Mayor (#48) contained the remains of approximately 45 children sacrificed to  Tlaloc. Another at  Tlatelolcos Temple R, dedicated to the Aztec god of the rain, Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl, contained 37 children and six adults. This sacrifice was carried out at Temple Rs dedication during the great drought and famine of 1454–1457 CE. The Tlatelolco project has identified thousands of human burials which were ritually deposited or sacrificially offered. In addition, evidence of human blood residue at the House of the Eagles in Tenochtitlans ceremonial precinct indicates bloodletting activities. Là ³pez Austins fourth category was sacrificial debt payments. These types of sacrifices are epitomized by the creation myth of Quetzalcoatl (the Feathered Serpent) and Tezcatlipoca (Smoking Mirror) who transformed into serpents and tore apart the earth goddess, Tlaltecuhtli, angering the rest of the Aztec pantheon. To make amends, the Aztecs needed to feed Tlaltecuhtlis endless hunger with human sacrifices, thereby staving off total destruction. How Many? According to some Spanish records, 80,400 people were slaughtered at the dedication of the Templo Mayor, a number likely exaggerated by either the Aztecs or the Spanish, both of whom had reason to inflate the numbers. The number 400 had a significance to Aztec society, meaning something like too many to count or the biblical notion involved in the word legion. There is no doubt that an unusually high number of sacrifices did occur, and 80,400 could be construed to mean 201 times too many to count. Based on the Florentine codex, scheduled rituals included a figure of around 500 victims a year; if those rituals were conducted in each of the calpulli districts of the city, that would be multiplied by 20. Pennock argues persuasively for an annual number of victims in Tenochtitlan of between 1,000 and 20,000. Edited and updated by K. Kris Hirst Sources Ball, Tanya Corissa. The Power of Death: Hierarchy in the Representation of Death in Pre- and Post-Conquest Aztec Codices. Multilingual Discourses 1.2 (2014): 1–34. Print.Berdan, Frances F. Aztec Archaeology and Ethnohistory. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014. Print.Boone, Elizabeth Hill, and Rochelle Collins. The Petroglyphic Prayers on the Sun Stone of Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina. Ancient Mesoamerica 24.2 (2013): 225–41. Print.De Lucia, Kristin. Everyday Practice and Ritual Space: The Organization of Domestic Ritual in Pre-Aztec Xaltocan, Mexico. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 24.03 (2014): 379–403. Print.Klein, Cecelia F. Gender Ambiguity and the Toxcatl Sacrifice. Tezcatlipoca: Trickster and Supreme Deity. Ed. Baquedano, Elizabeth. Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2014. 135–62. Print.Là ³pez Austin, Alfredo. The Human Body and Ideology: Concepts of the Ancient Nahuas. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1988.Pennock, Caroline Dodds. Mass Murder or Religious Homicide? Rethinking Human Sacrifice and Interpersonal Violence in Aztec Society. Historical Social Research / Historische Sozialforschung 37.3 (141) (2012): 276–302. Print. Schwartz, Glenn M. The Archaeological Study of Sacrifice. Annual Review of Anthropology 46.1 (2017): 223–40. Print.Watts, Joseph, et al. Ritual Human Sacrifice Promoted and Sustained the Evolution of Stratified Societies. Nature 532.7598 (2016): 228–31. Print.

Pacific Island Cultures Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

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